Syrian Civil War

To understand the Syrian Civil War, it is essential to look at the country’s demographic composition. Approximately 90% of the population is Muslim, with 74% being Sunni Muslims and 13% Shia Muslims. Christians make up about 10% of the population, along with a small Jewish community.Although 74% of the population in Syria is Sunni Muslim, the country’s leadership has been dominated by a Shia Muslim family from 1970 to 2024. To understand how this came to be, we must go back to the 1970s when Hafez al-Assad, the father of Bashar al-Assad, rose to power.

The history of Syria from the 1960s to the 1970s

The history of Syria from the 1960s to the 1970s was marked by significant political instability, military coups, and the rise of the Ba’ath Party, which laid the foundation for the Assad family’s long-standing rule. In the early 1960s, Syria faced a series of political upheavals. The country had briefly entered into a union with Egypt under the United Arab Republic (UAR) from 1958 to 1961, led by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser. However, the union dissolved in 1961 after a military coup in Syria. After the breakup, Syria saw frequent changes in leadership, with successive governments overthrown by military and political factions. This period was characterized by instability and power struggles among various ideological and regional groups.

Between the 1960s and 1970s, Syria experienced three coups, with Hafez al-Assad emerging as the most prominent figure.

On March 8, 1963, the Ba’ath Party, which promoted Arab nationalism, socialism, and secularism, came to power through a military coup. This marked the beginning of Ba’athist rule in Syria.The new government appointed Hafez al-Assad as the commander of the Syrian Air Force.

In 1966, a faction within the Ba’ath Party staged another coup, further consolidating power within the military elite, particularly among members of the Alawite sect (a minority Shia group).

This event marked the growing influence of Alawite military officers, including Hafez al-Assad, who would later dominate Syrian politics.In this coup, Hafez al-Assad was appointed as the Minister of Defense.

Internal power struggles within the Ba’ath Party culminated in Hafez al-Assad seizing power through a bloodless coup on November 13, 1970, known as the “Corrective Movement.” Hafez al-Assad’s takeover marked the beginning of the Assad family’s rule in Syria, establishing a centralized and authoritarian regime that emphasized stability, military strength, and loyalty to the ruling elite.

This is where the seeds of the Syrian Civil War were sown, as Hafez al-Assad was Alawite, which is closely related to Shia Muslims. This marked the beginning of Shia rule in a predominantly Sunni .

Hafez al-Assad and the Syrian Civil War

After coming to power, Hafez al-Assad sought to appease the Sunnis by praying in Sunni mosques, performing the pilgrimage to Mecca, and declaring the Alawites as a legitimate branch of Shia Islam. Along with these actions, he strengthened his intelligence services to prevent Sunni-supported parties from coming to power, took full control of the military, and kept a close watch on every small and large event to ensure no major issues arose.
Hafez al-Assad used his authority to implement laws that dismantled the opposition, modified the constitution to serve his interests, and took control of key institutions like intelligence, the military, and the media, thereby concentrating all power in his own hands.

Wikipedia – https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad

A glimpse of the Hama massacre and the Syrian civil war

Despite Hafez al-Assad’s extensive efforts, the early 1980s saw the beginning of protests led by the Sunni Brotherhood, targeting the government and security forces. By 1982, the rebellion had grown significantly, with military installations and officials being targeted.

To suppress this uprising, Hafez al-Assad ordered a military campaign led by his brother, Rifaat al-Assad.

During this military operation, Hama was under siege for 27 days, and the entire city was devastated. The operation involved the use of tanks, heavy artillery, and airstrikes.

According to a report by Robert Fisk of The Globe and Mail, around 20,000 people were killed in the campaign, while the Syrian Human Rights Committee put the death toll at 40,000. This massacre effectively crushed the Muslim Brotherhood’s rebellion. Afterward, there were no significant uprisings during Hafez al-Assad’s rule. The intensity of the Syrian civil war was momentarily subdued.

On June 10, 2000, Hafez al-Assad, at the age of 69, suffered a heart attack while speaking on the phone with Lebanese Prime Minister Salim al-Hoss and passed away.

Hafez al-Assad’s successor

After Hafez al-Assad’s death, his son Bashar al-Assad became the President of Syria. Bashar’s rise to the presidency was somewhat coincidental because Hafez’s first choice as his successor was his brother, Rifaat al-Assad.

However, after Hafez suffered a heart attack in November 1983, Rifaat al-Assad declared his candidacy for the presidency on November 13, 1983. Due to this attempted coup, Hafez al-Assad exiled his brother from Syria.

Hafez’s second choice as his successor was his eldest son, Bassel al-Assad, but he died in a car accident. As a result, Bashar al-Assad became the President.

Bashar al-Assad’s Rule and the Syrian Civil War

After becoming President, Bashar al-Assad continued to implement his father’s strategies. There was resentment among Syria’s Sunni community regarding the dictatorship, but it did not pose a major problem for Bashar al-Assad initially.

Between 2006 and 2010, Syria faced a severe drought, which led to economic hardships for the people. Issues such as food shortages and rising unemployment emerged, causing anti-government sentiments to gradually become more vocal.

The Arab Spring and the Syrian Civil War

During this period of economic crisis in Syria, the Arab Spring was unfolding in neighboring countries with authoritarian rule, including Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Yemen, and Jordan.

The Arab Spring was a wave of uprisings where people protested against their dictators, demanding democracy and freedom. The central slogan of the movement was:
“The people want to bring down the regime.”

The movement had a profound impact on the Arab world. In Libya, Muammar Gaddafi was overthrown and killed, leading to a regime change. In Tunisia, Zine El Abidine Ben Ali was forced to resign and flee the country. In Egypt, Hosni Mubarak’s 30-year rule was brought to an end.All these developments were reaching Syria through various channels such as television, radio, and newspapers. However, beyond these traditional mediums, social media emerged as the most powerful platform for spreading the news. As a result, the flames of the Arab Spring quickly spread to Syria.

The beginning of the Arab Spring or uprising in Syria can be traced back to a small incident. In the town of Daraa, on February 26, 2011, a seventh-grade student named Mouawiya Siyassen wrote on the wall of his school in Arabic: “It’s your turn, Doctor.”
Bashar al-Assad, the President of Syria, had studied at the Western Eye Hospital in London, which is why people referred to him as “Doctor.”

Given the ongoing Arab Spring in neighboring countries, Syria was taking precautions, and every small incident was being closely monitored. When the slogan written on the wall was reported to Atif Najeeb, the head of security in Daraa, security forces arrived at the school on February 27, 2011, to investigate who had written it. However, they were unable to find out, and on suspicion, 15 children were arrested, including Mouawiya Siyassen.

The security forces tortured the children severely, ripping off their nails and shocking them with electricity. Later, in the Al Jazeera documentary “The Boy Who Started the Syrian War,” Mouawiya Siyassen said: “The electric shock was the worst. They took me to the bathroom and turned on the current. They shocked me through the pipes, and wherever the water went, I was shocked.”

Meanwhile, when the parents of these children went to the police to try and free their children, the police told them, “Forget about your children, go home and make more children. If you can’t, leave your women here.”

The police’s behavior sparked anger and resentment among the people, leading to protests in Daraa. These protests started off peacefully. On March 15, 2011, Syria witnessed its first significant demonstration. Inspired by the Arab Spring in Tunisia and Egypt, where dictators were toppled, Syrians took to the streets, calling for the downfall of Bashar al-Assad’s regime.

The people demanded the release of their children, but in response, the police cracked down on the peaceful protests, arresting many individuals and imprisoning them.

The news of the inhumane treatment of children in Daraa was spreading to other parts of Syria, and gradually, protests began to erupt in other cities as well. Bashar al-Assad started to realize that arresting the children was a mistake, so in April 2011, after 45 days, all the children were released in an attempt to stop the protests.

When the children were released, their condition was dire. They could barely stand on their feet, their bodies were covered in marks from wounds, and their nails on their hands and feet had been pulled out. The story of their suffering spread throughout Syria, further fueling anger among the people.

As a result, on Friday, April 22, 2011, after the Jumu’ah prayers, the movement began again, but this time it turned violent, with people chanting slogans against Bashar al-Assad. This day became known as the “Friday of Dignity.”

When the Syrian security forces failed to control the crowd, they resorted to opening fire on April 25, 2011, killing two people. The next day, as the funeral procession for the two victims took place, the crowd once again became enraged and began chanting anti-government slogans. To respond, the government used helicopters and tanks. The security forces fired indiscriminately into the crowd, resulting in numerous casualties.

Bashar al-Assad thought this would suppress the movement, but it had the opposite effect. Instead of quieting the protests, they grew stronger. The demand for Bashar al-Assad’s removal from power intensified, marking the beginning of the Syrian Civil War.

The Second Phase of the Syrian Civil War

In 2011, around 1,000 people lost their lives in the Syrian Civil War. Clashes between the Syrian army and the general public continued to escalate. During this time, some soldiers from the Syrian army defected and joined the people’s revolt, with Riyad al-Assad becoming the leader of this rebellion.

At the same time, a chartered accountant named Maheroum began organizing people into small groups to fight against the Syrian army. These groups eventually came together to form the Free Syrian Army on July 29, 2011, with the goal of overthrowing Bashar al-Assad’s government.

The Free Syrian Army gradually took control of several parts of Syria. As a result, Sunni-majority countries started supporting the Free Syrian Army. Many organizations opposed to Assad’s government also joined forces with the Free Syrian Army. This led to the number of fighters in the Free Syrian Army growing to over 100,000.

The entry of ISI(Islamic State of Iraq) into the Syrian Civil War

While the Free Syrian Army was fighting against the Assad government, ISIS was engaged in battles in Iraq. Seeing an opportunity to expand its influence and help Sunni Muslims, ISIS decided to intervene in Syria. They changed their name from ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria) to reflect their new territory.

ISIS fighters began arriving in Syria, which further intensified the challenges for Assad’s government. As a result, the rebels, including ISIS, gradually gained control over more parts of Syria through guerrilla warfare.

The Syrian Civil War and the Demand for Kurdistan

In the northeastern part of Syria, there is a Kurdish community that also extends into the Turkish border region. Over time, there have been recurring demands for the creation of a Kurdish state, combining the Kurdish populations of Syria and Turkey into a unified Kurdistan.

When the Kurds saw that the Syrian army was preoccupied with the Free Syrian Army and ISIS during the civil war, they began taking control of parts of northeastern Syria. As a result, the Syrian government became further entangled in the civil war in the northeastern region as well.

The Involvement of Other Countries in the Syrian Civil War

In the next phase of the Syrian Civil War, other countries became involved. Sunni-majority countries in the Middle East, such as Saudi Arabia and Qatar, began supporting the Free Syrian Army with weapons and financial aid in their fight against Assad’s government.

Iran, a Shia-majority country, started supporting Bashar al-Assad to ensure Shia rule remained in Syria. Given Syria’s strong ties with Russia, Russia also began supporting Bashar al-Assad.

As Russia entered Syria, the United States, through the CIA, began providing weapons and training to the Free Syrian Army. In this way, major global powers became directly and indirectly involved in the Syrian Civil War.

Rawda Square Bomb Blast

On July 18, 2012, a meeting of the Syrian government’s Central Crisis Management Cell was taking place at Ravda Square. Many high-ranking officials of the Syrian government were present in this meeting. The Free Syrian Army carried out a well-planned attack and detonated a bomb, destroying the building. In the blast, Syria’s Defense Minister Dawood Rajha and Bashar al-Assad’s brother-in-law, Assef Shawkat, were killed.

The Use of Chemical Weapons in the Syrian Civil War

After the Ravda Square bomb blast, the Syrian government adopted a more aggressive stance and intensified attacks on the rebels. Despite these attacks, the government was unable to achieve significant success because the rebels were receiving heavy support from outside.

In Ghouta, a Sunni-majority area near Damascus, weapons were being sent from Jordan to support the Free Syrian Army in their fight. When the Syrian army failed to gain significant success in this area, on August 21, 2013, at 2:30 PM and again at 5:00 PM, the Syrian army used chemical weapons. The weapon used was sarin nerve agent, which was deployed as a weapon. This attack resulted in the deaths of a large number of people, including children, elderly, and women. It was a major war crime.

The Syrian Civil War in the United Nations

After the use of chemical weapons, opposition to Bashar al-Assad began worldwide. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International called for bringing the issue to the International Criminal Court through the United Nations. It seemed like Bashar al-Assad’s government might not survive, but Russia and China vetoed in favor of Assad at the United Nations. By 2017, Russia had vetoed seven times in support of the Syrian government.

Air Strikes on Syria by the United States and Turkey

Amid these events, the United States carried out airstrikes in Syria, stating that the strikes were aimed at eliminating ISIS. In 2015, Turkey also entered the Syrian Civil War, launching airstrikes on northeastern parts of Syria. Turkey believed that the Kurdish forces in this region could pose a future threat to its security.

Major Rebel Groups in Syria

Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS)

HTS is led by Abu Mohammad al-Jolani. Initially, Syrian jihadist fighters formed Jabhat al-Nusra Front to fight against the Assad government. This group was initially linked to Al-Qaeda and ISIS. However, in 2016, it split from Al-Qaeda and became Jabhat Fateh al-Sham (JFS). In 2017, JFS merged with other factions to form HTS.

Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF)

Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) is the second most powerful group in Syria after the Syrian Arab Army (SAA). It is the military wing of the Kurdish alliance. After separating from the SAA in 2012, the SDF has governed parts of northeastern Syria, including Deir ez-Zor, Raqqa, and Aleppo. Relations with the Syrian army have been tense, with occasional clashes. However, its main enemies have been ISIS and affiliated jihadist groups.

Syrian National Army (SNA)

Syrian National Army (SNA) is a group that emerged from the Syrian Army after the 2011 mutiny by Syrian soldiers. It has the support of Turkey. This group opposes both the Syrian government and the Kurdish SDF. HTS and SNA are fighting together against the Syrian regime.In this ongoing civil war in Syria, these rebel factions have received external support from various countries.

The End of Bashar al-Assad’s Regime in Syria

A new chapter was written in the 13-year-long civil war when, on December 8, 2024, the rebel group Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) captured the Syrian capital, Damascus, forcing Bashar al-Assad to flee Syria and seek refuge in Moscow, Russia. With this, the Assad family’s rule, which had lasted since 1970, came to an end in Syria.